> ## Content Index > Fetch the complete content index at: https://www.flavorist.com/llms.txt > Use this file to discover other available public pages before exploring further. # Flavor notes derived from Maillard reaction of glucose with individual amino acids - URL: https://www.flavorist.com/flavor-notes-derived-from-maillard-reaction-of-glucose-with-individual-amino-acids/ - Published: 2025-12-10T23:40:14.000Z - Updated: 2026-02-27T01:13:29.000Z - Author: Editor Kam Huey Wong , Suraini Abdul Aziz , and Suhaila Mohamed at Universiti Putra, Malaysia reported in [International Journal of Food Science and Technology Vol 43-Issue 9, Sept 2008](https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/43/9/1512/7864538?ref=flavorist.com) that individual amino acids can be used to generate specific flavor note through Maillard reaction with glucose. The reaction condition used for all the reaction experiments: Glucose monohydrate 10 mmol Individual amino acid: 3.3 mmol in 20 ml water. PH for each reaction varied depending upon the amino acid and experimental design. The reaction solution was heated at various temperatures for a various period of time. Reacted solutions were evaluated against standard flavorings (bouillon, meaty, soy sauce, smoky, malty, caramel, beany, chicken, fruity, pandan, vanilla, seafood, chocolate, coffee, buttery to characterize flavor note in each reaction solution. Taste of a reaction solution was evaluated against solutions of pure chemicals: Sweet (sucrose), sour (citric acid), salty(sodium chloride), bitter (caffeine), and umami (monosodium glutamate or MSG. (Note flavorists may use different chemicals to characterize the taste. Study findings Color and odor of Maillard products of amino acids and glucose formed after heating for 14 and/or 24 h at original pH | Amino acid | Original measured pH | 14 and/or 24 hours | | | ----------------------- | -------------------- | ------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Colour | Odour | | | | Alanine | 5.6 | Brown | Fruity\*\* (Persimmon), pleasant/sweet\*\*, flowery\*\*, | | Arginine | 5.3 | Light yellow | None, bitter taste\* | | Aspartic acid | 3.0 | Very light brown | Fruity\*\* (*ciku*, fresh dates), pleasant/sweet\*\* | | Cysteine | 4.5 | Light yellow | Sulphury\*\* | | Glutamic acid | 3.2 | No change | None, sour taste\*\* | | Glycine | 5.7 | Brown | Caramel-like\*\*, pleasant/sweet\* | | Histidine | 4.0 | Light yellow | None, slight sweet-sour taste | | Isoleucine | 5.8 | Brown | Burnt\*, caramel-like\* | | Leucine | 5.7 | Brown | Burnt\*\*, caramel-like\* | | Lysine | 5.4 | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*, caramel-like\*\*, bitter taste | | Methionine | 5.6 | Brown | Fried potatoes, prawn cracker\* | | Threonine | 5.6 | Light brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, astringent sweet taste | | Serine | 5.5 | Brown | Fruity\* (slightly *ciku*, fresh dates), pleasant/sweet\* | | Proline | 5.7 | Light brown | Flowery\*\*, pleasant/sweet\*\*, *pandan*\*\*, slightly persimmon, bitter taste | | Phenylalanine | 5.4 | Brown | Flowery\*\* (dried roses), Almond, bitter taste | | Tyrosine | 5.6 | Brown | Flowery\*\* (slightly dried roses), sweet taste | | Valine | 5.6 | Brown | Caramel-like\*\*, bitter taste | | None (glucose), control | 5.4 | No change | None | Color and odor of Maillard products of amino acids and glucose formed after heating for 14 and/or 24 h at original pH | Amino acid | Original measured pH | 14 and/or 24 hours | | | ----------------------- | -------------------- | ------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Colour | Odour | | | | Alanine | 5.6 | Brown | Fruity\*\* (Persimmon), pleasant/sweet\*\*, flowery\*\*, | | Arginine | 5.3 | Light yellow | None, bitter taste\* | | Aspartic acid | 3.0 | Very light brown | Fruity\*\* (*ciku*, fresh dates), pleasant/sweet\*\* | | Cysteine | 4.5 | Light yellow | Sulphury\*\* | | Glutamic acid | 3.2 | No change | None, sour taste\*\* | | Glycine | 5.7 | Brown | Caramel-like\*\*, pleasant/sweet\* | | Histidine | 4.0 | Light yellow | None, slight sweet-sour taste | | Isoleucine | 5.8 | Brown | Burnt\*, caramel-like\* | | Leucine | 5.7 | Brown | Burnt\*\*, caramel-like\* | | Lysine | 5.4 | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*, caramel-like\*\*, bitter taste | | Methionine | 5.6 | Brown | Fried potatoes, prawn cracker\* | | Threonine | 5.6 | Light brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, astringent sweet taste | | Serine | 5.5 | Brown | Fruity\* (slightly *ciku*, fresh dates), pleasant/sweet\* | | Proline | 5.7 | Light brown | Flowery\*\*, pleasant/sweet\*\*, *pandan*\*\*, slightly persimmon, bitter taste | | Phenylalanine | 5.4 | Brown | Flowery\*\* (dried roses), Almond, bitter taste | | Tyrosine | 5.6 | Brown | Flowery\*\* (slightly dried roses), sweet taste | | Valine | 5.6 | Brown | Caramel-like\*\*, bitter taste | | None (glucose), control | 5.4 | No change | None | Color and odor of Maillard products of amino acids and glucose formed after heating for 24 h at starting pH 5.2 and controlled at pH 5.2 ± 0.1 conditions | Amino acid | Colour | Odour | | -------------- | ---------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------ | | Alanine | Brown | Fruity\*\* (*ciku*, fresh dates), pleasant/sweet\*\*, flowery\*\* | | Arginine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, fruity\*, sour\* | | Aspartic acid | Brown | Fruity (*ciku*, fresh dates), pleasant/sweet\*\*, caramel-like\*\* | | Cysteine | Very light brown | Sulphury\*\*, slightly meaty, boiled chickpeas | | Glutamic acid | Brown | None, sour umami taste, | | Glycine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, flowery\* | | Histidine | Light yellow | None, sour taste | | Isoleucine | Brown | Burnt\*\*, caramel-like\*\* | | Leucine | Brown | Burnt\*\*, caramel-like\*, biscuit-like | | Lysine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, *pandan*\*,bitter taste | | Methionine | Brown | Fried potatoes, prawn crackers\* | | Threonine | Light brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, fruity\*\* | | Serine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\* | | Proline | Brown | Flowery\*, pleasant/sweet\*, *pandan*\*\* | | Phenylalanine | Brown (cloudy) | Flowery\*\* (roses), almond, *Mimusops elengi* flower\*\* | | Tyrosine | Brown | Flowery\*, fruity\*, pleasant/sweet, tea-like | | Valine | Brown | Caramel-like\*\*, biscuit-like, malty, chocolate, bitter taste | | None (glucose) | No change | None | Color and odor of Maillard products of amino acids and glucose formed after heating for 1 h in the presence of 6 m HCl (pH < 0.1) | Amino acid | Colour | Odour | | ------------- | ---------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Alanine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, fruity\* (*ciku*, fresh dates), caramel-like\*\*, slightly burnt\*\* | | Arginine | Brown | Caramel-like\*, burnt\*\*, slight sweet/pleasant\* | | Aspartic Acid | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, fruity (*ciku*, fresh dates), caramel-like\*\* | | Cysteine | Dark brown | Sulphury\*\*, meaty\* | | Glutamic Acid | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, caramel-like\*\*, burnt\*\* | | Glycine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, caramel-like\*\*, burnt\*\* | | Histidine | Brown | Caramel-like\*\*, burnt\* | | Isoleucine | Brown | Burnt\*\*, coffee-like\*, prune | | Leucine | Brown | Burnt\*, coffee-like\*, caramel-like\*, malty\* | | Lysine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, cardboard, Herbal tea\* | | Methionine | Brown | Meaty\*\*, sulphury\*\*, fried potatoes\* | | Threonine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, fruity\*\* (*ciku*, fresh dates), flowery\*, caramel-like\*\* | | Serine | Brown | Slightly burnt\*\*, pleasant/sweet\* | | Proline | Brown | Flowery\*\*, pleasant/sweet\*\*, *pandan*\*, slightly alkaline | | Phenylalanine | Brown | Flowery\*\* (roses) | | Tyrosine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*, caramel-like\*, burnt\*\* | | Valine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, caramel-like\*\*, burnt\*, malty | Comparison of color and odor of Maillard products of amino acids and glucose heated and maintained at pH 5.2 ± 0.1 served at room temperature and 60 °C | | Served at room temperature | Served at 60 °C | | | | ------------- | -------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------ | ---------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------- | | Amino acid | Colour | Odour | Colour | Odour | | Arginine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, fruity\*, sour\* | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, caramel-like\*\*, fruity, sour | | Glutamic acid | Brown | None\*\*, fruity sour umami taste | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, caramel-like\*, biscuit-like\* | | Glycine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, flowery\* | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, flowery\*, caramel-like\*\* | | Histidine | Light yellow | None\*\*, sour taste | Light yellow | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, caramel-like\* | | Lysine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, *pandan*\* | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, *pandan\**, flowery\* | | Threonine | Very light brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, fruity\*\* | Very light brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, fruity\* | | Serine | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\* | Brown | Pleasant/sweet\*\*, caramel-like\*\* | | Tyrosine | Brown | Flowery\*, fruity\*, Pleasant/sweet\*, tea-like | Brown | Flowery\*\* (roses), fruity, Pleasant/sweet, tea-like | | Valine | Brown | Caramel-like\*\*, biscuit-like, malty, chocolate | Brown | Caramel-like\*\*, biscuit-like, malty, chocolate, burnt\*\* | Those who are interested in details may download a [FTP](https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article-pdf/43/9/1512/60851841/j.1365-2621.2006.01445.x.pdf?ref=flavorist.com) file of the report.